function W = emgr_oct(f,g,s,t,w,pr=0,nf=0,ut="i",us=0,xs=0,um=1,xm=1,dp=@mtimes)
## emgr - EMpirical GRamian Framework
#
# project: emgr ( https://gramian.de )
# version: 5.7-oct ( 2019-02-26 )
# authors: Christian Himpe ( 0000-0003-2194-6754 )
# license: BSD-2-Clause License ( opensource.org/licenses/BSD-2-Clause )
# summary: Empirical system Gramians for (nonlinear) input-output systems.
#
# USAGE:
#
# W = emgr_oct(f,g,s,t,w,[pr],[nf],[ut],[us],[xs],[um],[xm],[dp])
#
# DESCRIPTION:
#
# Empirical gramian matrix and empirical covariance matrix computation
# for model reduction, decentralized control, nonlinearity quantification,
# sensitivity analysis, parameter identification, uncertainty quantification &
# combined state and parameter reduction of large-scale input-output systems.
# Data-driven analysis of input-output coherence and system-gramian-based
# nonlinear model order reduction. Compatible with OCTAVE and MATLAB.
#
# ALGORITHM:
#
# C. Himpe (2018). emgr - The Empirical Gramian Framework. Algorithms 11(7):91
# <https://doi.org/10.3390/a11070091 doi:10.3390/a11070091>
#
# ARGUMENTS:
#
# f {handle} vector field handle: x' = f(x,u,p,t)
# g {handle} output function handle: y = g(x,u,p,t)
# s {vector} system dimensions: [inputs,states,outputs]
# t {vector} time discretization: [time-step,time-horizon]
# w {char} single character encoding gramian type:
# * 'c' empirical controllability gramian (Wc)
# * 'o' empirical observability gramian (Wo)
# * 'x' empirical cross gramian (Wx aka Wco or Xcg)
# * 'y' empirical linear cross gramian (Wy)
# * 's' empirical sensitivity gramian (Ws)
# * 'i' empirical identifiability gramian (Wi)
# * 'j' empirical joint gramian (Wj)
# pr {matrix|0} parameters, each column is one set
# nf {vector|0} option flags, twelve component vector, default zero:
# * center: none(0), steady(1), last(2), mean(3), rms(4), midr(5), geom(6)
# * input scales: single(0), linear(1), geom(2), log(3), sparse(4)
# * state scales: single(0), linear(1), geom(2), log(3), sparse(4)
# * input rotations: unit(0), single(1)
# * state rotations: unit(0), single(1)
# * normalization (only: Wc, Wo, Wx, Wy): none(0), Jacobi(1), steady(2)
# * state gramian variant:
# * cross gramian type (only: Wx, Wy, Wj): regular(0), non-symmetric(1)
# * observability gramian type (only: Wo, Wi): regular(0), averaged(1)
# * extra input (only: Wo, Wx, Ws, Wi, Wj): none(0), yes(1)
# * parameter centering (only: Ws, Wi, Wj): none(0), linear(1), log(2)
# * parameter gramian variant:
# * averaging type (only: Ws): input-state(0), input-output(1)
# * Schur-complement (only: Wi, Wj): detailed(0), approximate(1)
# * cross gramian partition size (only: Wx, Wj): full(0), partitioned(<N)
# * cross gramian partition index (only: Wx, Wj): partition(>0)
# ut {handle|'i'} input function handle: u_t = ut(t) or character:
# * 'i' delta impulse input
# * 's' step input / load vector / source term
# * 'c' decaying exponential chirp input
# * 'r' pseudo-random binary input
# us {vector|0} steady-state input
# xs {vector|0} steady-state and nominal initial state x_0
# um {matrix|1} input scales
# xm {matrix|1} initial-state scales
# dp {handle|@mtimes} inner product handle: xy = dp(x,y)
#
# RETURNS:
#
# W {matrix} Gramian Matrix (for: Wc, Wo, Wx, Wy)
# W {cell} [State-, Parameter-] Gramian (for: Ws, Wi, Wj)
#
# CITE AS:
#
# C. Himpe (2019). emgr - EMpirical GRamian Framework (Version 5.7)
# [Software]. Available from https://gramian.de . doi:10.5281/zenodo.2577980
#
# KEYWORDS:
#
# model reduction, system gramians, empirical gramians, cross gramian, MOR
#
# SEE ALSO: gram (Control Package)
# Integrator Handle
global ODE;
if not(isa(ODE,"function_handle")), ODE = @ssp2; endif
# Version Info
if strcmp(f,"version"), W = 5.7; return; endif
## SETUP
# System Dimensions
M = s(1); # Number of inputs
N = s(2); # Number of states
Q = s(3); # Number of outputs
A = 0; # Number of augmented parameter states
P = size(pr,1); # Dimension of parameter and number of sets
K = size(pr,2); # Number of parameter-sets
# Time Discretization
dt = t(1); # Time-step width
Tf = t(2); # Time horizon
nt = floor(Tf / dt) + 1; # Number of time-steps plus initial value
# Lazy Output Functional
if isnumeric(g) && (g == 1), g = @id; Q = N; endif
# Augmented Parameter-States (set by parameter gramians)
if (numel(s) == 4), A = s(4); endif
# Pad Flag Vector
if numel(nf) < 12, nf(12) = 0; endif
# Built-in Input Functions
if not(isa(ut,"function_handle"))
switch lower(ut)
case "s" # Step Input
ut = @(t) 1;
case "c" # Decaying Exponential Chirp Input
a0 = (2.0 * pi) / (4.0 * dt) * Tf / log(4.0 * (dt / Tf));
b0 = (4.0 * (dt / Tf)) ^ (1.0 / Tf);
ut = @(t) 0.5 * cos(a0 * (b0 ^ t - 1.0)) + 0.5;
case "r" # Pseudo-Random Binary Input
ut = @(t) randi([0,1],1,1);
otherwise # Delta Impulse Input
ut = @(t) (t <= dt) / dt;
endswitch
endif
# Lazy Optional Arguments
if isscalar(us), us = repmat(us,M,1); endif
if isscalar(xs), xs = repmat(xs,N,1); endif
if isscalar(um), um = repmat(um,M,1); endif
if isscalar(xm), xm = repmat(xm,N,1); endif
# Gramian Normalization
if nf(6) && (A == 0)
switch nf(6)
case 1 # Jacobi-type preconditioner
NF = nf; NF(6) = 0;
DP = @(x,y) sum(x .* y',2); # Diagonal-only pseudo-kernel
WT = emgr_oct(f,g,s,t,w,pr,NF,ut,us,xs,um,xm,DP);
TX = sqrt(abs(WT));
case 2 # Steady-state preconditioner
TX = xs;
endswitch
TX(abs(TX) < sqrt(eps)) = 1;
f = @(x,u,p,t) f(TX .* x,u,p,t) ./ TX;
g = @(x,u,p,t) g(TX .* x,u,p,t);
xs = xs ./ TX;
endif
# Non-symmetric cross Gramian or average observability Gramian
if nf(7), R = 1; else, R = Q; endif
# Extra Input
if nf(8), up = @(t) us + ut(t); else, up = @(t) us; endif
# Scale Sampling
if size(um,2) == 1, um = um * scales(nf(2),nf(4)); endif
if size(xm,2) == 1, vm = xm(1:Q) * scales(nf(2),nf(4)); endif
if size(xm,2) == 1, xm = xm * scales(nf(3),nf(5)); endif
C = size(um,2); # Number of input scales sets
D = size(xm,2); # Number of state scales sets
## GRAMIAN COMPUTATION
switch lower(w) # Empirical system gramian types
# Common Layout:
# For each {parameter set, scale, input/state/parameter component}:
# Perturb, simulate, center, normalize, accumulate
# Assemble, normalize, post-process
# Parameter gramians call state gramians
case "c" # Empirical Controllability Gramian
W = 0; # Reserve gramian variable
for k = 1:K
for c = 1:C
for m = find(um(:,c))' # parfor
em = sparse(m + M * (A > 0),1,um(m,c),M + P,1);
umc = @(t) up(t) + ut(t) .* em(1:M);
pmc = pr(:,k) + em(M + 1:end);
x = ODE(f,@id,t,xs,umc,pmc);
x -= avg(x,nf(1),xs);
x /= um(m,c);
if A > 0
W += em(M + 1:end) * dp(x,x');
else
W += dp(x,x');
endif
endfor
endfor
endfor
W *= dt / (C * K);
case "o" # Empirical Observability Gramian
W = 0; # Reserve gramian variable
o = zeros(R * nt,N + A); # Pre-allocate observability matrix
for k = 1:K
for d = 1:D
for n = find(xm(:,d))' # parfor
en = sparse(n,1,xm(n,d),N + P,1);
xnd = xs + en(1:N);
pnd = pr(:,k) + en(N + 1:end);
ys = g(xs,us,pnd,0);
y = ODE(f,g,t,xnd,up,pnd);
y -= avg(y,nf(1),ys);
y /= xm(n,d);
if nf(7) # Average observability gramian
o(:,n) = sum(y,1)';
else # Regular observability gramian
o(:,n) = y(:);
endif
endfor
W += dp(o',o);
endfor
endfor
W *= dt / (D * K);
case "x" # Empirical Cross Gramian
assert((M == Q) || nf(7),"emgr: non-square system!");
i0 = 1;
i1 = N + A;
# Partitioned cross gramian
if nf(11) > 0
sp = round(nf(11)); # Partition size
ip = round(nf(12)); # Partition index
i0 += (ip - 1) * sp; # Start index
i1 = min(i0 + sp - 1,N); # End index
if i0 > N
i0 -= ceil(N / sp) * sp - N;
i1 = min(i0 + sp - 1,N + A);
endif
if (ip < 1) || (i0 > i1) || (i0 < 0), W = 0; return; endif
endif
W = 0; # Reserve gramian variable
o = zeros(nt,i1 - i0 + 1,R); # Pre-allocate observability 3-tensor
for k = 1:K
for d = 1:D
for n = find(xm(i0:i1,d))'
en = sparse(i0 - 1 + n,1,xm(i0 - 1 + n,d),N + P,1);
xnd = xs + en(1:N);
pnd = pr(:,k) + en(N+1:end);
ys = g(xs,us,pnd,0);
y = ODE(f,g,t,xnd,up,pnd);
y -= avg(y,nf(1),ys);
y /= xm(i0 - 1 + n,d);
if nf(7) # Non-symmetric cross gramian
o(:,n,1) = sum(y,1)';
else # Regular cross gramian
o(:,n,:) = y';
endif
endfor
for c = 1:C # parfor
for m = find(um(:,c))'
em = sparse(m,1,um(m,c),M,1);
umc = @(t) us + ut(t) .* em;
x = ODE(f,@id,t,xs,umc,pr(:,k));
x -= avg(x,nf(1),xs);
x /= um(m,c);
if nf(7) # Non-symmetric cross gramian
W += dp(x,o(:,:,1));
else # Regular cross gramian
W += dp(x,o(:,:,m));
endif
endfor
endfor
endfor
endfor
W *= dt / (C * D * K);
case "y" # Empirical Linear Cross Gramian
assert((M == Q) || nf(7),"emgr: non-square system!");
assert(C == size(vm,2),"emgr: scale count mismatch!");
W = 0; # Reserve gramian variable
a = zeros(nt,N,R); # Pre-allocate adjoint 3-tensor
for k = 1:K
for c = 1:C
for q = find(vm(:,c))'
em = sparse(q,1,vm(q,c),Q,1);
vqc = @(t) us + ut(t) .* em;
z = ODE(g,@id,t,xs,vqc,pr(:,k));
z -= avg(z,nf(1),xs);
z /= vm(q,c);
if nf(7) # Non-symmetric cross gramian
a(:,:,1) += z';
else # Regular cross gramian
a(:,:,q) = z';
endif
endfor
for m = find(um(:,c))' # parfor
em = sparse(m,1,um(m,c),M,1);
umc = @(t) us + ut(t) .* em;
x = ODE(f,@id,t,xs,umc,pr(:,k));
x -= avg(x,nf(1),xs);
x /= um(m,c);
if nf(7) # Non-symmetric cross gramian
W += dp(x,a(:,:,1));
else # Regular cross gramian
W += dp(x,a(:,:,m));
endif
endfor
endfor
endfor
W *= dt / (C * K);
case "s" # Empirical Sensitivity Gramian
[pr,pm] = pscales(pr,nf(9),C);
W{1} = emgr_oct(f,g,[M,N,Q],t,'c',pr,nf,ut,us,xs,um,xm,dp);
if not(nf(10)) # Input-state sensitivty gramian
DP = @(x,y) sum(sum(x .* y')); # Trace pseudo-kernel
else # Input-output sensitivity gramian
DP = @(x,y) sum(reshape(y,Q,[])); # Custom pseudo-kernel
Y = emgr_oct(f,g,[M,N,Q],t,'o',pr,nf,ut,us,xs,um,xm,DP);
DP = @(x,y) abs(sum(y(:) .* Y(:))); # Custom pseudo-kernel
endif
W{2} = emgr_oct(f,g,[M,N,Q,P],t,'c',pr,nf,ut,us,xs,pm,xm,DP);
case "i" # Empirical Augmented Observability Gramian
[pr,pm] = pscales(pr,nf(9),D);
V = emgr_oct(f,g,[M,N,Q,P],t,'o',pr,nf,ut,us,xs,um,[xm;pm],dp);
W{1} = V(1:N,1:N); # Observability gramian
WM = V(1:N,N + 1:N + P);
W{2} = V(N + 1:N + P,N + 1:N + P); # Identifiability gramian
if not(nf(10))
W{2} -= WM' * ainv(W{1}) * WM;
endif
case "j" # Empirical Joint Gramian
[pr,pm] = pscales(pr,nf(9),D);
V = emgr_oct(f,g,[M,N,Q,P],t,'x',pr,nf,ut,us,xs,um,[xm;pm],dp);
if nf(11), W = V; return; endif # Joint gramian partition
W{1} = V(1:N,1:N); # Cross gramian
WM = V(1:N,N + 1:N + P);
if not(nf(10)) # Cross-identifiability gramian
W{2} = -0.5 * (WM' * ainv(W{1} + W{1}') * WM);
else
W{2} = -0.5 * (WM' * WM);
endif
otherwise
error("emgr: unknown gramian type!");
endswitch
end
## LOCAL FUNCTION: scales
function s = scales(nf1,nf2)
# summary: Input and initial state perturbation scales
switch nf1
case 1 # Linear
s = [0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.0];
case 2 # Geometric
s = [0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0];
case 3 # Logarithmic
s = [0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1.0];
case 4 # Sparse
s = [0.01, 0.50, 0.99, 1.0];
otherwise # One
s = 1.0;
endswitch
if nf2 == 0, s = [-s,s]; endif
end
## LOCAL FUNCTION: pscales
function [pr,pm] = pscales(p,nf,ns)
# summary: Parameter perturbation scales
assert(size(p,2) >= 2,"emgr: min and max parameter required!");
pmin = min(p,[],2);
pmax = max(p,[],2);
switch nf
case 1 # Linear centering and scales
pr = 0.5 * (pmax + pmin);
pm = (pmax - pmin) * linspace(0,1.0,ns) + (pmin - pr);
case 2 # Logarithmic centering and scales
lmin = log(pmin);
lmax = log(pmax);
pr = real(exp(0.5 * (lmax + lmin)));
pm = real(exp((lmax - lmin) * linspace(0,1.0,ns) + lmin)) - pr;
otherwise # No centering and linear scales
pr = pmin;
pm = (pmax - pmin) * linspace(1.0 / ns,1.0,ns);
endswitch
end
## LOCAL FUNCTION: id
function x = id(x,u,p,t)
# summary: Output identity function
;
end
## LOCAL FUNCTION: avg
function a = avg(z,nf,zs)
# summary: State and output trajectory centering
switch nf
case 1 # Steady state / output
a = zs;
case 2 # Final state / output
a = z(:,end);
case 3 # Temporal mean state / output
a = mean(z,2);
case 4 # Temporal root-mean-square state / output
a = sqrt(mean(z .* z,2));
case 5 # Midrange state / output
a = 0.5 * (max(z,[],2) - min(z,[],2));
case 6 # Geometric mean state / output
a = prod(sign(z),2) .* prod(abs(z),2) .^ (1.0 / size(z,2));
otherwise # None
a = 0;
endswitch
end
## LOCAL FUNCTION: ainv
function x = ainv(m)
# summary: Quadratic complexity approximate inverse matrix
d = diag(m);
k = find(abs(d) > sqrt(eps));
d(k) = 1.0 ./ d(k);
x = m .* (-d);
x = x .* (d');
x(1:numel(d) + 1:end) = d;
end
## LOCAL FUNCTION: ssp2
function y = ssp2(f,g,t,x0,u,p)
# summary: Low-Storage Strong-Stability-Preserving Second-Order Runge-Kutta
# Configurable number of stages for enhanced stability
global STAGES;
if not(isscalar(STAGES)), STAGES = 3; endif
dt = t(1);
nt = floor(t(2) / dt) + 1;
y0 = g(x0,u(0),p,0);
Q = numel(y0); # Q = N when g = id
y = zeros(Q,nt); # Pre-allocate trajectory
y(:,1) = y0;
xk1 = x0;
xk2 = x0;
for k = 2:nt
tk = (k - 1.5) * dt;
uk = u(tk);
for s = 1:(STAGES - 1)
xk1 += (dt / (STAGES - 1)) * f(xk1,uk,p,tk);
endfor
xk2 += dt * f(xk1,uk,p,tk);
xk2 /= STAGES;
xk2 += xk1 * ((STAGES - 1) / STAGES);
xk1 = xk2;
y(:,k) = g(xk1,uk,p,tk);
endfor
end
